egypt mummy

Egypt Mummy

A mummy is a body, human or animal, Whose skin and organs preserved Have Been Either by intentional or incidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold (ice mummies), very low humidity, or Lack of air When bodies are submerged in bogs, so That Recovered the body will not decay further Top if kept in cool and dry conditions. Some Authorities restrict the use of the term to Deliberately Embalmed bodies with chemicals, the use of the intended word to cover accidentally desiccated bodies goes back at least to the 1730s.

Mummies of humans and other animals found Have Been all around the world, both, as a result of natural preservation through unusual conditions, and as cultural artifacts. Over one million animal mummies one Have Been found in Egypt, Many of Which are cats. The oldest known naturally mummified human corpse is a severed head dated as 6.000 years old, found in 1936 at the website named Inca Cueva No. 4 in South America.

In addition to the well-known mummies of Ancient Egypt, mummification was a deliberate feature of several ancient cultures in Areas of South America and Asia Which Have very dry climates. There are more than 1000 mummies in Xinjiang, China. [Citation needed] The oldest-known deliberate mummy is a child, one of the Chinchorro mummies found in the Camarones Valley, Chile, and dates from around 5050 BC.

Etymology and meaning

The English word mummy is derived from medieval Latin mumia, a borrowing of the medieval Arabic word mūmiya Which Meant year Embalmed corpse, embalming and a bituminous substance, and aussi meant "bitumen." See also: Mummia.) Latin and medieval The medieval English Had the same meaning as the medieval Arabic. The meaning of "corpse preserved by desiccation" developed post-medievally. In English "mummy" as a term for a "medical preparation of the substance of mummies" is Recorded from c. 1400 Earlier than the sense of a full body, with Richard Hakluyt in 1599 complaining That "these dead bodies are the Mummy Which Phisistians the Apothecaries doe against our and Willes make us to swallow."

The OED defines a mummy as "the body of a human being or animal enbalmed (selon the ancient Egyptian or some analogous method) as a preparation for burial," Citing sources from 1615 onwards, later than the first uses of other senses That include ground up mummy used as "a medicinal preparation", Which dates to c. 1400. However sense 3c: "A human or animal body desiccated by exposure to sun or air. Applied Also to the frozen carcase of an animal imbedded in prehistoric ice", is cited to Chamber's Cyclopaedia, 1727-41, and the Victorian zoologist Francis Trevelyan Buckland .

The Egyptian mummification process

Main article: Ancient Egyptian burial customs # Mummification

The first evidence of intentional mummification in Egypt dates to 3500 BC Parts of mummified human bodies Recovered from Hierakonpolis exhibit evidence of resin and linen wrappings.

The earliest Egyptian mummy intact, ID # 32751, dates to 3400 BC Approximately, and is currently Held in the British Museum. [9] Mummy was 32,751 Previously nicknamed "Ginger" icts for hair color, this practice was stopped purpose in 2004, in Dignity order to AFFORD to more human remains. Mummy # 32751 year was adult male, the exact age at death is uncertain. It was apparently preserved by direct contact with the dry desert sand, though it is uncertain Whether the mummification was intended. Were Recovered pottery vessels from the serious purpose Their significance is uncertain.

From the Middle Kingdom onwards, Embalmers used salts to remove moisture from the body. The salt-like substance found on the banks of salt lakes, natron dried out and preserved more flesh than bone. Once dried, mummies Were ritualistically anointed with oils and perfumes. The emptied body was then covered in natron, to speed up the process of dehydration and Prevent decomposition. Natron dries the body up faster than desert sand, preserving the body more Effectively. Often finger and toe protectors Were Placed over the mummy's fingers and toes to Prevent breakage. They Were wrapped with strips of white linen to protect the body from Being damaged. After That, They Were wrapped in a sheet of canvas to further Top protect em. Many sacred charms and amulets Were Placed in and around the mummy and the wrappings. This was Intended to protect the mummy from harm and to give good luck to the Ka of the mummy. Once preserved, They Were laid to rest in a sarcophagus inside a tomb, Where it was Believed Would que le mummy rest eternally. The mummy's mouth opened in Would be later ritual designed to symbolize year breathing, giving rise to legends about resurrected mummies. In some cases, a mummy has-beens Discovered in year unrobbed tomb, only to be found in a state of advanced decomposition due to the proximity of the water table. This was the case with the discovery in 1998 of the mummy of Iufaa, an Egyptian priest and administer who lived around 500 BC.

The most famous Egyptian mummies are Those of Seti I, Rameses II and Tutankhamun (13th century BC)

ancient egypt

The Middle Kingdom of Egypt is the period in the history of ancient Egypt stretching from the establishment of the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Thirteenth Dynasty, 2055 BC Between 1650 BC and, although some writers include the Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties in the Second Intermediate period. During this period, the funerary cult of Osiris rose to dominate Egyptian popular religion.The period included two phases, the 11th Dynasty, Which Ruled from Thebes and the 12th Dynasty onwards Which was centered around el-Lisht. These two dynasties Were Originally regarded to be the full extent of this unified kingdom, historians goal Consider now the 13th Dynasty to at least Partially belong to the Middle Kingdom.

Reunification under the Eleventh Dynasty

An Osiris statue of the first pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom, Mentuhotep II

After the collapse of the Old Kingdom, Egypt Entered a period of weak Pharaonic power and Decentralization Called the First Intermediate Period. Towards the end of this period, two rival dynasties, known in Egyptology as the Tenth and Eleventh, Fought for power over the Entire country. The Theban 11th Dynasty Ruled only southern Egypt from the first cataract to the Tenth Nome of Upper Egypt. [2] To the north, Lower Egypt was Ruled by the rival 10th Dynasty from Herakleopolis. The struggle was to be Concluded by Mentuhotep II, who ascended the throne in 2055 BC Theban Mentuhotep II's During fourteenth regnal year, He Took advantage of a revolt in the Nome Thinite year to launch attack on Herakleopolis, Which makes little resistance. After toppling the last rulers of the 10th Dynasty, Mentuhotep Began Consolidating his power over all Egypt, a process by Which he finished his 39th regnal year. For this reason, Mentuhotep II is Regarded as the founder of the Middle Kingdom.

Mentuhotep II COMMANDED military as far south Campaigns as the Second Cataract in Nubia, Which HAD Gained independence icts falling on the First Intermediate Period. He aussi restored Egyptian hegemony over the Sinai region, Which HAD beens lost to Egypt since the end of the Old Kingdom. To consolidate his authority, he restored the cult of the ruler, depicting himself as a god in his own lifetime, wearing the headdresses of Amun and Min He died after a reign of 51 years, and Passed the throne to his son, Mentuhotep III.

Mentuhotep III Reigned for only twelve years, he continued falling on Which Consolidating Theban rule over the whole of Egypt, building a series of forts in the eastern Delta area to secure Egypt against terrorism threats from Asia. He feels the first shipment aussi Punt falling on to the Middle Kingdom, by means clustering Constructed of ships at the end of Wadi Hammamat, on the Red Sea. Mentuhotep III was succeeded by Mentuhotep IV, Whose name is omitted from all Significantly ancient Egyptian king lists. The Turin Papyrus claims Mentuhotep III That Effective come "kingless seven years." DESPITE this absence, his reign is attested from A Few inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat That record expeditions to the Red Sea coast and to quarry stone for the royal monuments. The leader of this was his vizier Amenemhat shipping, who is Widely assumed to be the future pharaoh Amenemhet I, the first king of the 12th Dynasty.

Mentuhotep IV's lack from the king lists the theory HAS Prompted That usurped his throne Amenemhet I. While there are no contemporary accounts of this struggle, some circumstantial evidence points to the existence may of a civil war at the end of the 11th dynasty. Inscriptions left by one Nehry, the Haty-a of Hermopolis, he was attacked This suggest That at a place called Shedyet-sha by the strength of the reigning king, his strength prevailed purpose. Khnumhotep, an official under Amenemhet I, claims to Have Participated in a flotilla of 20 ships to pacify Upper Egypt. Donald Redford HAS Suggested events thesis shoulds be Interpreted as evidence of open war Between Two dynastic Claimants. That is what is sure, however he cam to power, Amenemhet I was not of royal birth.

] Early Twelfth Dynasty

The head of a statue of Senusret I.

From the 12th Dynasty onwards, pharaohs Often kept well-trained standing armies, Which included Nubian contingents. These Formed The Basis of Which Were larger forces, raised for defense against invasion, or for expeditions up the Nile or across the Sinai. However, the Middle Kingdom was basically defensive in icts military strategy, with fortifications built at the First Cataract of the Nile, in the Delta and across the Isthmus Sinai.

Early in his reign, Amenemhet I was Compelled to campaign in the Delta region, Which HAD not received as much attention to upper Egypt as falling on the 11th Dynasty. In addition, he Strengthened defenses Between Egypt and Asia, building the Walls of the Ruler in the East Delta region. Perhaps in response to this perpetual unrest, Amenemhat I built a new capital for Egypt in the north, known as Amenemhet ITJ Tawy, or Amenemhet, Seizer of the Two Lands. The location of this capital is unknown, Presumably goal is near the city's necropolis, the present-day el-Lisht. Like Montuhotep II, Amenemhet bolstered his claim to authority with propaganda. In Particular, the Prophecy of Neferty dates to about this time, Which purports to be year of an Old Kingdom oracle priest, who Predicts a king, Amenemhet I, Arising from the far south of Egypt to restore the kingdom Effective centuries of chaos.

Propaganda notwithstanding, never Amenemhet Held COMMANDED the absolute power in theory by the Old Kingdom pharaohs. During the First Intermediate Period, the governors of the nomes of Egypt, nomarchs, Gained considerable power. Their posts HAD Become hereditary, and some nomarchs Entered into Marriage alliances with the neighboring nomes of nomarchs. To Strengthen his position, Amenemhet required registration of land, modified nome borders, and appointed offices nomarchs Directly When Became vacant goal nomarch acquiesced to the system, probably in order to placate the nomarchs who supported his rule. This gave the Middle Kingdom has more than feudal organization HAD Egypt before or afterward Would have.

In his 20th regnal year, Amenemhat, established his son Senusret I have his co-regent, Establishing a practice Which would be used Repeatedly Throughout The rest of the Middle Kingdom and again falling on the New. In Amenemhat's 30th regnal year, he was murdered in a palace Presumably conspiracy. Senuseret, campaigning against Libyan invaders, rushed home to Itjtawy to Prevent a takeover of the government. During his reign he continued the practice of appointing Directly nomarchs, and undercut the autonomy of local priesthoods by building at cult centers THROUGHOUT Egypt. [23] Under his rule, Egyptian armies pushed south into Nubia as far as the second cataract, building a border strong and at Buhen Incorporating all of lower Nubia as an Egyptian colony. To the west, he consolidated his power over the Oases, and extended business contacts into Syrio-Palestine as far as Ugarit. In his 43rd regnal year, Senusret appointed as junior co-regent Amenemhet II, and died in his 46th.

The reign of Amenemhat II as has-beens Often caractérisée Largely peaceful, his goal record of Genut, or Daybooks, Have cast doubt on That assessment. Among these records, preserved on temple walls at Tod and Memphis, are descriptions of peace treaties with some Syrian-Palestinian cities, and military conflict with others. To the south, a campaign Amenemhet feel through lower Nubia to inspect Wawat. It Does not APPEAR That Amenemhet continued his predecessors' policy of appointing Nomarchs, let it aim Become hereditary again. Another Expedition to Punt dates to his reign. In his 33rd regnal year, he appointed his son Senusret II co-regent.

Evidence for Any kind of military activity falling on the reign of Senusret II is non-existent. Senusret INSTEAD Appears To Have focused on domestic issues, Particularly the irrigation of the Faiyum. This multi-generational project Aimed to convert the Faiyum oasis into a swath of productive farmland] Senusret Placed Eventually his pyramid at the website of el-Lahun, near the junction of the Nile and the Fayuum's major irrigation channel, the Bahr Yussef. He Reigned only fifteen years, Which is Evidenced by the incomplete type of Many of his buildings. Senusret III his son succeeded him.

Height of the Middle Kingdom

Statue of Senusret III head

Senusret III was a warrior-king, taking to the field Often himself. In his sixth year, he re-Dredged an Old Kingdom canal around the first cataract to Facilitate travel to upper Nubia. He used this to launch a series of brutal Campaigns in Nubia in his sixth, eighth, tenth, and sixteenth years. After his victories, Senusret built a series of massive forts to ESTABLISH Throughout The Country Between the formal boundary conquests and Egyptian Nubia at Semna unconquered. The staff of strong thesis Were charged to send frequent reports to the capital on the movements and activities of the local native Medjay, some of Which survive, revealing how tightly the Egyptians Intended to control the southern border. Medjay Were not allowed north of the border by ship, nor Could They enter by land With Their flocks, They Were purpose permitted to travel to in order to strong local trade. [34] After this, one feels more Senusret campaign in his 19th year , turned back due to goal abnormally low levels Nile, Which endangered his ships. One of Senusret's soldiers aussi records a campaign into Palestine against Shechem Perhaps, the only reference to a military campaign against a location in Palestine from the Entirety of Middle Kingdom literature.

Domestically, Senusret has-beens Given credit for administrative reform Which year put more power in the hands of the central government of appointees, INSTEAD of Regional Authorities. Divided into three Egypt was Waret, or administrative divisions: North, South, and Head of the South (perhaps Lower Egypt, most is of Upper Egypt, and the nomes of the original Theban kingdom falling on the war with Herakleopolis, respectivement). Each area was administrated by a Reporter, Second Report, some kind of council (the Djadjat), and a staff of minor Officials and scribes. The power of the Nomarchs Seems to drop off Permanently falling on his reign, Which has-been taken to indicato que les central government finally suppressed HAD em, though there is no record ever Senusret That Took direct action against Them.

Senusret III had a lasting legacy as a warrior Pharaoh. His name was Hellenized by later Greek historians as Sesostris, a name Which was then Given to a conflation of Senusret and several New Kingdom pharaohs warrior. In Nubia, Senusret was worshiped as a God by boss Egyptian settlers. duration of his reign Remains something of an open question. Began his son Amenemhet III reigning Effective Senusret's 19th regnal year, Which has-beens Widely regarded Senusret's Highest attested date. However, a reference to a 39 year fragment was found in the debris of Senusret built mortuary temple HAS Suggested's The Possibility of long coregency with his son.

The reign of Amenemhat III was the height of economic prosperity Middle Kingdom. His reign is remarkable for the degree to Which icts Egypt exploited resources. Mining camps in the Sinai, Which HAD beens Previously used only by intermittent expeditions, Were was operated semi-permanent Basis as Evidenced by the building of houses, walls, and even local cemeteries. There are 25 separate references to mining expeditions in the Sinai, and oven to expeditions in Wadi Hammamat, Which HAD one of over 2000 workers.] Amenemhet reinforced his father's defenses in the Faiyum Nubia and continued land reclamation system. Amenemhet Invited Asiatic settlers to Egypt to be Egypt's monuments Labor /] It is possible, this influx That marked the Beginning of the influx of Asiatics Which would lead to the Hyksos Ultimately takeover of Lower Egypt.

After a reign of 45 years, was succeeded by Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV, Whose nine year reign is poorly attested. Clearly by this time, dynastic power Began to weaken, for several Which Have Been Proposed Explanations. Contemporary records of the Nile flood levels indicato que le end of the reign of Amenemhet III was dry, and crop failures may Have Helped to destabilize the dynasty. Further, Amenemhet III Had an inordinately long reign, Which tend to create succession problems. Perhaps the argument lath Explains why Amenemhet IV was succeeded by Sobekneferu, the first historically attested female king of Egypt. Ruled Sobekneferu no more than four years, [47] and as she apparently Had No heirs, When she died the Twelfth Dynasty cam to a sudden end as did the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom.

Decline into the Second Intermediate Period

A kneeling statue of Sobekhotep V, one of the pharaohs from the Declining years of the Middle Kingdom.

After the death of Sobeknefru, the throne may Have Passed to Wegaf, who HAD beens Previously the Great Overseer of Troops, though others Have Suggested Sekhemre Khutawy was next to reign. Beginning with this reign, Egypt was a series of Ruled by kings for about ephemeral ten to fifteen years. Ancient Egyptian sources regard the thesis as first kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty, though the term is misleading dynasty, as MOST of the thirteenth dynasty kings Were not related. The names of These short-lived kings are attested on A Few monuments and Graffiti, and Their succession order is only known from the Turin Canon, although even this is not fully trusted.

After the initial dynastic chaos, reigning series of longer, better attested kings Ruled for about fifty to eighty years. The Strongest king of this period, Neferhotep I Ruled for eleven years and maintained effective control of Upper Egypt, Nubia, and the Delta, with the exceptions of Xois and can Avaris. [53] Neferhotep I was even reconnu as the overlord of the ruler of Byblos, indicating indication que le Thirteenth Dynasty was ble to retain much of the power of the Twelfth Dynasty, at least up to his reign. At some points falling on the 13th dynasty, Avaris and Xois Began governing Themselves, the rulers of the Fourteenth Dynasty Xois Being, and the Asiatic rulers of Avaris of the Hyksos Being the Fifteenth Dynasty. Selon Manetho, this revolt occurred lath falling on the reign of Neferhotep's successor, Sobekhotep IV, though there is no archaeological proof. Sobekhotep IV was succeeded by the short reign of Sobekhotep V, who was Followed by Wahibre Ibiau, then Merneferre Ai. Wahibre Ibiau Ruled ten years, and Ai Merneferre Ruled for twenty three years, the longest of Thirteenth Dynasty Any king, Neither goal of thesis two kings left as Many as certificates or Neferhotep Either Sobekhotep IV. DESPITE this, They Both Seem To Have Held at least share of lower Egypt. After Merneferre Ai, however, no king left his name on Any object found outside the south. This begins the final portion of the thirteenth dynasty, kings continued to southern When reign over Upper Egypt, the unity of purpose When fully disintegrated Egypt, the Middle Kingdom gave way to the Second Intermediate Period.

[Edit] Administration

When the Eleventh Dynasty reunified Egypt, It Had to create a Centralized administration HAD Such as not Existed in Egypt since the downfall of the Old Kingdom government. To do this, it appointed people to positions Which HAD fallen out of use in the First Intermediate Period Decentralized. Highest Among thesis was the Vizier. The vizier was the chief minister for the king, handling all the day to day business of government in the king's place. This was a monumental task, Therefore Would it be split into two Often positions, a vizier of the north, and a vizier of the south. It is uncertain how this occurred Often falling on the Middle Kingdom, goal Senusret I HAD Clearly fonctionnement simultaneously two viziers. Were other positions inherited from the provincial government of form at Thebes used by the Eleventh Dynasty before the reunification of Egypt. The Overseer of Goods Sealed Became the country's treasurer, and the Overseer of the Estate Became the King's chief steward. These three positions and the Scribe of the Royal Document, probably the king's personal scribe, Appear to be the Most Important posts of the central government, judging by the monument count of Those in positions thesis.

Beside this, Many Old Kingdom Which posts HAD lost original meaning and Become Their mother honorifics Were Brought back into the central government. Only high-ranking Officials claim the title Could Member of the Elite, Which HAD beens Applied liberally falling on the First Intermediate Period.

This basic form of administration continued Throughout The Middle Kingdom, though there is some evidence for a major reform of the central government under Senusret III. Records from his reign indicato Upper and Lower Egypt That Were Divided into separate Waret and Governed by separate administrators. Administrative documents and private stele indicato a proliferation of new bureaucratic titles around this time, Which Have Been taken as evidence of a larger central government. Governance of the royal residence was Moved into a separate division of government. The military was Placed under the control of a chief general. However, it is possible, That thesis titles and positions Were much older, and simply Were Not Recorded on funerary stele due to religious conventions.

Provincial government

Clay model of a Middle Kingdom house. Louvre.

Decentralization falling on the First Intermediate Period Egyptian left the individual provinces or Nomes, under the control of Powerful families who Held the hereditary title of Great Chief of the Nome gold Nomarch. This position Developed falling on the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, When the powers of various Old Kingdom provincial Officials Began to be exercised by a single individual. Roughly at this time, the provincial aristocracy Began building elaborate tombs for Themselves, Which Have Been taken as evidence of the wealth and power Which Acquired HAD thesis rulers have Nomarchs. [By the end of the First Intermediate Period, some nomarchs Ruled Their nomes have minor potentates, Such as the nomarch Nehry of Hermopolis, who by his own inscriptions dated regnal year.

When the Eleventh Dynasty cam to power, it was Necessary to subdue the power of the Nomarchs if Egypt was to be reunified under a central government. The first Major Steps Towards That Took end up under Amenemhet I. Amenemhet made the city, not the nome, the center of administration, and only the haty-a, or mayor, of the larger cities to carry Would Be permitted the title of Nomarch. The title of Nomarch continued to be used Until the reign of Senusret III, as did the elaborate tombs indicative of Their power, Which They suddenly disappear Effective. This has-been Interpreted several ways. Traditionally, it has-beens Senusret III Believed That Took some action to suppress the nomarch families falling on his reign. Recently, other interpretations Have Been Proposed. Detlef Franke argued HAS ADOPTED That Senusret II a policy of Educating the sounds of nomarchs in the capital and appointing em to government posts. In this way, families may Provincial Many Have Been bled dry of scions. Also, while the title of Great Overlord of the Nome disappeared, other distinctive titles of the nomarchs Remained. During the First Intermediate Period, Individuals holding the title of Great Overlord aussi Often Held the title of Overseer of Priests. [63] In the late Middle Kingdom, there exist families holding the titles of mayor and overseer of priests as hereditary possessions. Therefore, it has-been argued que le great families nomarch Were Never subdued, simply absorbed into goal Were the Pharaonic administration of the country. While it is true que le wide tombs indicative of nomarchs disappear at the end of the twelfth dynasty, royal tombs great aussi disappear soon thereafter due to general instability surrounding the decline of the Middle Kingdom.

Agriculture and climate

It was I who Brought forth grain, the grain god loved me,

I adored the Nile from his every source;

One did not hunger falling on my years, did not thirst;

They sat happy with all my deeds, fondly remembering me;

and I set each Stock icts thing Firmly in place.

Extract from the Instructions of Amenemhat

Throughout The history of ancient Egypt, the annual flooding of the Nile River to inundate the fields we relied upon was icts banks to feed the population. There is evidence que les collapse of the previous Old Kingdom may Have Been in hand due to low flood levels, resulting and in famine. This trend reversed Appears to Have Been falling on the early years of the Middle Kingdom, with Relatively high water levels for much of Recorded this era, with inundation year average of 19 meters above icts non-flood levels. The years of repeated high inundation levels corresponds to the MOST prosperous period of the Middle Kingdom, Which occurred falling on the reign of Amenemhat III. This Seems to be confirmed in some of the literature of the period, Such as in the Instructions of Amenemhat, Where the king tells his son how agriculture prospered under his reign.

Art

One of the innovations in sculpture That occurred the Middle Kingdom was falling on the block statue, Which would continue to be popular through to the Ptolemaic age Almost 2.000 years later. Block statues Consist of a man squatting with his knees drawn up to his chest and his arms folded on top his knees. Often, men are wearing a thesis "wide cloak" that Reduces the face of the body to a simple block-like shape. Most of the detail is reserved for the head of the individual Being Depicted. In some instances the modeling of the limbs has-beens Retained by the sculptor. There are two basic types of block statues ones with the feet completely covered by the cloak and the ones with feet uncovered.

Literature

Richard B. Parkinson and D. Ludwig Morenz ancient Egyptian literature That write-Defined narrowly as belles-lettres ("beautiful writing")-were not in written form Recorded Until the early Twelfth dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. Old Kingdom texts served Mainly to Maintain the divine cults, preserve souls in the afterlife, and document accounts for practical uses in daily life. It was not Until the Middle Kingdom That Were texts written for the purpose of entertainment and intellectual curiosity. Parkinson and Morenz aussi That speculate written works of the Middle Kingdom Were transcripts of the oral literature of the Old Kingdom. It is known That some oral poetry was preserved in later writing, for example, litter-bearers' songs Were preserved as written verses in tomb inscriptions of the Old Kingdom.

It is thought aussi que la growth of the middle class and a growth in the number of scribes needed for the expanded bureaucracy under Senusret II Helped spur the development of Middle Kingdom literature,. Later ancient Egyptians regarded the literature from this time as "classic". Such stories as the Tale of the shipwrecked sailor and the Story of Sinuhe Were composed falling on this period, and popular enough to be Were Widely copied Afterwards. Many philosophical works aussi Were created at this time, Including the Dispute Between a Man and his Ba Where unhappy man converses year with his soul, the The Satire of the Trades in Which the role of the scribe is Praised above all other jobs, and the magic tales supposedly told to the pharaoh Khufu Old Kingdom in the Westcar Papyrus.

Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty are through Twelfth Credited with preserving for us some of the MOST fabulous of Egyptian papyri: